钽铌矿,Tantalum-niobium ore,音标,读音,翻译,英文例句,英语词典
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1)&&Tantalum-niobium ore
General situation of tantalum-niobium ore resource and advances of mineral processing technology of tantalum-
钽铌矿资源概况及选矿技术现状和进展
A new process called ore blending-KOH molten salt decomposition-water leaching was first put forward for the processing of a low-grade refractory tantalum-niobium ore.
首次提出采用"配矿-KOH 熔盐分解-水浸出"的新工艺来处理低品位、难分解钽铌矿。
2)&&tantalum-niobium ores
3)&&columbotantalite
In the paper the long-range prediction of the pegmatite-type columbotantalite in FuTou-Xialiuyuan area of Northern Fujian is under discussion according to the characteristic analysis,model analysis,variant selection and the classification of association degree.
通过特征分析模型分析和变量选取及关联度分级,对闽北地区头—下柳源一带伟晶岩型铌钽矿产进行远景预测研究。
4)&&niobium-tantalum deposit
5)&&Nb-Ta deposit
6)&&manganocolumbite-tantalite
补充资料：钽铌矿
分子式：分子量：CAS号：性质：含有钽和铌的矿物的总称，共有百余种。其中可作矿石开采的，主要钽铁矿、铌铁矿和烧绿石（pyrochlorite）等。用于制备氧化钽、氧化铌等和提炼钽、铌等。
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China's tantalum oxide producers' production capacity statistics by province by month
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China's tantalum oxide producers' production capacity statistics by province by month
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← germanium →
[] 3d10 4s2 4p2
Electrons per shell
2, 8, 18, 4
Physical properties
0; (938.25&#160;°C, 0;°F)
;K (;°C, ;°F)
(near&#160;r.t.)
5.323&#160;g/cm3
when&#160;liquid (at&#160;m.p.)
5.60&#160;g/cm3
36.94&#160;
334&#160;kJ/mol
23.222&#160;J/(mol·K)
P&#160;(Pa)
100&#160;k
at&#160;T&#160;(K)
Atomic properties
4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4 (an
Pauling&#160;scale: 2.01
1st:&#160;762&#160;kJ/mol
2nd:&#160;0;kJ/mol
3rd:&#160;0;kJ/mol
empirical: 122&#160;
122&#160;pm
211&#160;pm
Miscellanea
thin&#160;rod
;m/s (at&#160;20&#160;°C)
6.0&#160;um/(m·K)
60.2&#160;W/(m·K)
1&#160;Ω·m (at&#160;20&#160;°C)
0.67&#160; (at&#160;300&#160;K)
-76.84·10-6&#160;cm3/mol
103&#160;GPa
41&#160;GPa
75&#160;GPa
after , homeland of the discoverer
Prediction
270.8&#160;d
1.78×1021&#160;y
Germanium is a
with symbol&#160;Ge and &#160;32. It is a lustrous, hard, grayish-white
in the , chemically similar to its group neighbors
and . Pure germanium is a
with an appearance similar to elemental silicon. Like silicon, germanium naturally reacts and forms complexes with
in nature.
Because it seldom appears in high concentration, germanium was discovered comparatively late in the history of chemistry. Germanium ranks near fiftieth . In 1869,
its existence and some of its properties from its position on his , and called the element . Nearly two decades later, in 1886,
found the new element along with
and , in a rare mineral called . Although the new element somewhat resembled
in appearance, the combining ratios in compounds agreed with Mendeleev's predictions for a relative of silicon. Winkler named the element after his country, . Today, germanium is mined primarily from
(the primary ore of zinc), though germanium is also recovered commercially from , , and
Germanium "metal" (isolated germanium) is used as a semiconductor in
and various other electronic devices. Historically, the first decade of semiconductor electronics was based entirely on germanium. Today, the amount of germanium produced for semiconductor electronics is one fiftieth the amount of ultra-high purity silicon produced for the same. Presently, the major end uses are
systems, ,
applications, and
(LEDs). Germanium compounds are also used for
catalysts and have most recently found use in the production of . This element forms a large number of
compounds, such as , useful in .
Germanium is not thought to be an essential element for any living organism. Some complex organic germanium compounds are being investigated as possible pharmaceuticals, though none have yet proven successful. Similar to silicon and aluminum, natural germanium compounds tend to be insoluble in water and thus have little oral . However, synthetic soluble germanium salts are , and synthetic chemically reactive germanium compounds with
are irritants and toxins.
Samples of germanium compounds prepared by , discoverer of the element
In his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements in 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev predicted the existence of several unknown , including one that would fill a gap in the
in his Periodic Table of the Elements, located between
and . Because of its position in his Periodic Table, Mendeleev called it ekasilicon (Es), and he estimated its
to be about 72.0.
In mid-1885, at a mine near , a new
was discovered and named
because of the high
content. The chemist
analyzed this new mineral, which proved to be a combination of silver, sulfur, and a new element. Winkler was able to isolate the new element in 1886 and found it similar to . He initially considered the new element to be eka-antimony, but was soon convinced that it was instead eka-silicon. Before Winkler published his results on the new element, he decided that he would name his element neptunium, since the recent discovery of planet
in 1846 had similarly been preceded by mathematical predictions of its existence. However, the name "neptunium" had already been given to another proposed chemical element (though not the element that today bears the name , which was discovered in 1940). So instead, Winkler named the new element germanium (from the
word, Germania, for Germany) in honor of his homeland. Argyrodite proved empirically to be Ag8GeS6.
Because this new element showed some similarities with the elements
and antimony, its proper place in the periodic table was under consideration, but its similarities with Dmitri Mendeleev's predicted element "ekasilicon" confirmed that place on the periodic table. With further material from 500&#160;kg of ore from the mines in Saxony, Winkler confirmed the chemical properties of the new element in 1887. He also determined an atomic weight of 72.32 by analyzing pure
deduced 72.3 by a comparison of the lines in the spark
of the element.
Winkler was able to prepare several new compounds of germanium, including , , , , and
(Ge(C2H5)4), the first organogermane. The physical data from those compounds — which corresponded well with Mendeleev's predictions — made the discovery an important confirmation of Mendeleev's idea of element . Here is a comparison between the prediction and Winkler's data:
Ekasilicon
atomic mass
density (g/cm3)
melting point (°C)
oxide type
refractory dioxide
oxide density (g/cm3)
oxide activity
feebly basic
feebly basic
chloride boiling point (°C)
86 (GeCl4)
chloride density (g/cm3)
Until the late 1930s, germanium was thought to be a poorly conducting . Germanium did not become economically significant until after 1945 when its properties as an
semiconductor were recognized. During , small amounts of germanium were used in some special , mostly . The first major use was the point-contact
pulse detection during the War. The first
alloys were obtained in 1955. Before 1945, only a few hundred kilograms of germanium were produced in smelters each year, but by the end of the 1950s, the annual worldwide production had reached 40 .
The development of the germanium
in 1948 opened the door to countless applications of . From 1950 through the early 1970s, this area provided an increasing market for germanium, but then high-purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors, diodes, and . For example, the company that became
was founded in 1957 with the express purpose of producing silicon transistors. Silicon has superior electrical properties, but it requires much greater purity that could not be commercially achieved in the early years of .
Meanwhile, the demand for germanium for
communication networks, infrared
systems, and
increased dramatically. These end uses represented 85% of worldwide germanium consumption in 2000. The US government even designated germanium as a strategic and critical material, calling for a 146&#160; (132&#160;) supply in the national defense stockpile in 1987.
Germanium differs from silicon in that the supply is limited by the availability of exploitable sources, while the supply of silicon is limited only by production capacity since silicon comes from ordinary sand and . While silicon could be bought in 1998 for less than $10 per kg, the price of germanium was almost $800 per kg.
Under , germanium is a brittle, silvery-white, semi-metallic element. This form constitutes an
known as α-germanium, which has a metallic luster and a , the same as . At pressures above 120 , it becomes the allotrope β-germanium with the same structure as β-. Like silicon, , , , and , germanium is one of the few substances that expands as it solidifies (i.e. ) from the molten state.
Germanium is a .
techniques have led to the production of crystalline germanium for semiconductors that has an impurity of only one part in 1010, making it one of the purest materials ever obtained. The first metallic material discovered (in 2005) to become a
in the presence of an extremely strong
Pure germanium suffers from the forming of
by spontaneous . If a whisker grows long enough to touch another part of the assembly or a metallic packaging, it can effectively
a . This is one of the primary reasons for the failure of old germanium diodes and transistors.
Elemental germanium oxidizes slowly to
at 250&#160;°C. Germanium is insoluble in dilute
but dissolves slowly in hot concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids and reacts violently with molten alkalis to produce
3]2-). Germanium occurs mostly in the
+4 although many +2 compounds are known. Other oxidation states are rare: +3 is found in compounds such as Ge2Cl6, and +3 and +1 are found on the surface of oxides, or negative oxidation states in , such as -4 in GeH
4. Germanium cluster anions ( ions) such as Ge42-, Ge94-, Ge92-, [(Ge9)2]6- have been prepared by the extraction from alloys containing alkali metals and germanium in liquid ammonia in the presence of
or a . The oxidation states of the element in these ions are not integers—similar to the
of germanium are known:
2, germania) and , (GeO). The dioxide, GeO2 can be obtained by roasting
2), and is a white powder that is only slightly soluble in water but reacts with alkalis to form germanates. The monoxide, germanous oxide, can be obtained by the high temperature reaction of GeO2 with Ge metal. The dioxide (and the related oxides and germanates) exhibits the unusual property of having a high refractive index for visible light, but transparency to
light. , Bi4Ge3O12, (BGO) is used as a .
with other
are also known, such as the di (GeS
2), di (GeSe
2), and the
(GeS), selenide (GeSe), and
(GeTe). GeS2 forms as a white precipitate when hydrogen sulfide is passed through strongly acid solutions containing Ge(IV). The disulfide is appreciably soluble in water and in solutions of caustic alkalis or alkaline sulfides. Nevertheless, it is not soluble in acidic water, which allowed Winkler to discover the element. By heating the disulfide in a current of , the monosulfide (GeS) is formed, which sublimes in thin plates of a dark color and metallic luster, and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis. Upon melting with
and , germanium compounds form salts known as thiogermanates.
Germane is similar to .
Four tetra are known. Under normal conditions GeI4 is a solid, GeF4 a gas and the others volatile liquids. For example, , GeCl4, is obtained as a colorless fuming liquid boiling at 83.1&#160;°C by heating the metal with chlorine. All the tetrahalides are readily hydrolyzed to hydrated germanium dioxide. GeCl4 is used in the production of organogermanium compounds. All four dihalides are known and in contrast to the tetrahalides are polymeric solids. Additionally Ge2Cl6 and some higher compounds of formula GenCl2n+2 are known. The unusual compound Ge6Cl16 has been prepared that contains the Ge5Cl12 unit with a
structure.
(GeH4) is a compound similar in structure to . Polygermanes—compounds that are similar to —with formula GenH2n+2 containing up to five germanium atoms are known. The germanes are less volatile and less reactive than their corresponding silicon analogues. GeH4 reacts with alkali metals in liquid ammonia to form white crystalline MGeH3 which contain the GeH3- . The germanium hydrohalides with one, two and three halogen atoms are colorless reactive liquids.
addition with an organogermanium compound.
was synthesized by Winkler in 1887; the reaction of germanium tetrachloride with
4). Organogermanes of the type R4Ge (where R is an ) such as
4) and tetraethylgermane are accessed through the cheapest available germanium precursor
and alkyl nucleophiles. Organic germanium hydrides such as
3) were found to be less hazardous and may be used as a liquid substitute for toxic
applications. Many germanium
are known:
, germylenes (similar to ), and germynes (similar to ). The organogermanium compound
was first reported in the 1970s, and for a while was used as a dietary supplement and thought to possibly have anti-tumor qualities.
Using a ligand called Eind (1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7-octaethyl-s-hydrindacen-4-yl) germanium is able to form a double bond with oxygen (germanone).
Germanium occurs in 5 natural : 70Ge, 72Ge, 73Ge, 74Ge, and 76Ge. Of these, 76Ge is very slightly radioactive, decaying by
of 1.78×1021&#160;years. 74Ge is the most common isotope, having a
of approximately 36%. 76Ge is the least common with a natural abundance of approximately 7%. When bombarded with alpha particles, the isotope 72Ge will generate stable , releasing high energy electrons in the process. Because of this, it is used in combination with
At least 27
have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 58 to 89. The most stable of these is 68Ge, decaying by
with a half-life of 270.95&#160;days. The least stable is 60Ge, with a half-life of 30&#160;. While most of germanium's radioisotopes decay by , 61Ge and 64Ge decay by
delayed . 84Ge through 87Ge isotopes also exhibit minor
decay paths.
Germanium is created by , mostly by the
stars. The s-process is a slow
capture of lighter elements inside pulsating
stars. Germanium has been detected in some of the most distant stars and in the atmosphere of Jupiter.
Germanium's abundance
is approximately 1.6&#160;. Only a few minerals like , , , and
contain appreciable amounts of germanium, and none in mineable deposits. Some zinc-copper-lead ore bodies contain enough germanium to justify extraction from the final ore concentrate. An unusual natural enrichment process causes a high content of germanium in some coal seams, discovered by
during a broad survey for germanium deposits. The highest concentration ever found was in
coal ash with as much as 1.6% germanium. The coal deposits near , , contain an estimated ; of germanium.
About 118&#160; of germanium was produced in 2011 worldwide, mostly in China (80 t), Russia (5 t) and United States (3 t). Germanium is recovered as a by-product from
ores where it is concentrated in amounts as great as 0.3%, especially from low-temperature sediment-hosted, massive ––(–) deposits and carbonate-hosted Zn–Pb deposits. A recent study found that at least 10,000 t of extractable germanium is contained in known zinc reserves, particularly those hosted by , while at least 112,000 t will be found in coal reserves. In 2007 35% of the demand was met by recycled germanium.
While it is produced mainly from , it is also found in , , and
ores. Another source of germanium is
of power plants fueled from coal deposits that contain germanium. Russia and China used this as a source for germanium. Russia's deposits are located in the far east of
Island, and northeast of . The deposits in China are located mainly in the
mines near , ; coal is also mined near , .
The ore conc they are converted to the
by heating under air in a process known as :
GeS2 + 3 O2 → GeO2 + 2 SO2
Some of the germanium is left in the dust produced, while the rest is converted to germanates, which are then leached (together with zinc) from the cinder by sulfuric acid. After neutralization, only the zinc stays in solution while germanium and other metals precipitate. After removing some of the zinc in the precipitate by the , the residing Waelz oxide is leached a second time. The
is obtained as precipitate and converted with
gas or hydrochloric acid to , which has a low boiling point and can be isolated by distillation:
GeO2 + 4 HCl → GeCl4 + 2 H2O
GeO2 + 2 Cl2 → GeCl4 + O2
Germanium tetrachloride is either hydrolyzed to the oxide (GeO2) or purified by fractional distillation and then hydrolyzed. The highly pure GeO2 is now suitable for the production of germanium glass. It is reduced to the element by reacting it with hydrogen, producing germanium suitable for infrared optics and semiconductor production:
GeO2 + 2 H2 → Ge + 2 H2O
The germanium for steel production and other industrial processes is normally reduced using carbon:
GeO2 + C → Ge + CO2
A typical single-mode optical fiber. Germanium oxide is a
of the core silica (Item 1).
1. Core 8&#160;um
2. Cladding 125&#160;um
3. Buffer 250&#160;um
4. Jacket 400&#160;um
The major end uses for germanium in 2007, worldwide, were estimated to be: 35% for , 30% , 15%
catalysts, and 15% electronics and solar electric applications. The remaining 5% went into such uses as phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy.
The notable properties of
(GeO2) are its high
and its low . These make it especially useful for , , and the core part of . It has replaced
for silica fiber, eliminating the subsequent heat treatment that made the fibers brittle. At the end of 2002, the fiber optics industry consumed 60% of the annual germanium use in the United States, but this is less than 10% of worldwide consumption.
used for its optic properties, such as that used in .
Because germanium is transparent in the infrared wavelengths, it is an important
optical material that can be readily cut and polished into lenses and windows. It is especially used as the front optic in
working in the 8 to 14&#160; range for passive thermal imaging and for hot-spot detection in military, mobile , and fire fighting applications. It is used in infrared
and other optical equipment that require extremely sensitive . It has a very high
(4.0) and must be coated with anti-reflection agents. Particularly, a very hard special antireflection coating of
(DLC), refractive index 2.0, is a good match and produces a diamond-hard surface that can withstand much environmental abuse.
alloys are rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material for high-speed integrated circuits. Circuits utilizing the properties of Si-SiGe junctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone. Silicon-germanium is beginning to replace
(GaAs) in wireless communications devices. The SiGe chips, with high-speed properties, can be made with low-cost, well-established production techniques of the
are a major use of germanium. Germanium is the substrate of the wafers for high-efficiency
for space applications. High-brightness LEDs, used for automobile headlights and to backlight LCD screens, are an important application.
Because germanium and
have very similar lattice constants, germanium substrates can be used to make gallium arsenide . The
and several satellites use triple junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells.
Germanium-on-insulator substrates are seen as a potential replacement for silicon on miniaturized chips. Other uses in electronics include
and solid-state light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Germanium transistors are still used in some
by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal character of the
from the early
era, most notably the .
Germanium dioxide is also used in
in the production of
(PET). The high brilliance of this polyester is especially favored for PET bottles marketed in Japan. In the United States, germanium is not used for polymerization catalysts.
Due to the similarity between silica (SiO2) and germanium dioxide (GeO2), the silica stationary phase in some
columns can be replaced by GeO2.
In recent years germanium has seen increasing use in precious metal alloys. In
alloys, for instance, it reduces , increases tarnish resistance, and improves precipitation hardening. A tarnish-proof silver alloy trademarked
contains 1.2% germanium.
made of single crystal high-purity germanium can precisely identify radiation sources—for example in airport security. Germanium is useful for
diffraction. The reflectivity has advantages over silicon in neutron and
applications. Crystals of high purity germanium are used in detectors for
and the search for . Germanium crystals are also used in X-ray spectrometers for the determination of phosphorus, chlorine and sulfur.
Germanium is emerging as an important material for
and spin-based
applications. In 2010, researchers demonstrated room temperature spin transport
and more recently donor electron spins in germanium has been shown to have very long .
Germanium is not considered essential to the health of plants or animals. Germanium in the environment has little or no health impact. This is primarily because it usually occurs only as a trace element in ores and
materials, and the various industrial and electronic applications involve very small quantities that are not likely to be ingested. For similar reasons, end-use germanium has little impact on the environment as a biohazard. Some reactive intermediate compounds of germanium are poisonous (see precautions, below).
Germanium supplements, made from both organic and inorganic germanium, have been marketed as an
capable of treating
and . There is, however, some evidence suggests that such supplements are actively harmful.
Some germanium compounds have been administered by alternative medical practitioners as non-FDA-allowed injectable solutions. Soluble inorganic forms of germanium used at first, notably the citrate-lactate salt, resulted in some cases of
dysfunction, , and peripheral
in individuals using them over a long term. Plasma and urine germanium concentrations in these individuals, several of whom died, were several orders of magnitude greater than
levels. A more recent organic form, beta-carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide (), has not exhibited the same spectrum of toxic effects.
research has concluded that inorganic germanium, when used as a , "presents potential human ".
Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to , but have toxic effects against certain .
Some of germanium's artificially-produced compounds are quite reactive and present an immediate hazard to human health on exposure. For example,
(GeH4) are a liquid and gas, respectively, that can be very irritating to the eyes, skin, lungs, and throat.
As of the year 2000, about 15% of
consumption of germanium was used for infrared optics technology and 50% for fiber-optics. Over the past 20 years, infrared use has co fiber optic demand, however, is slowly increasing. In America, 30–50% of current fiber optic lines are unused , sparking discussion of over-production and a future reduction in demand. Worldwide, demand is increasing dramatically as countries such as China are installing fiber optic telecommunication lines throughout the country.
From Greek, argyrodite means silver-containing.
Just as the existence of the new element had been predicted, the existence of the planet
had been predicted in about 1843 by the two mathematicians
and , using the calculation methods of . They did this in attempts to explain the fact that the planet , upon very close observation, appeared to be being pulled slightly out of position in the sky.
started searching for it in July 1846, and he sighted this planet on September 23, 1846.
R. Hermann published claims in 1877 of his discovery of a new element beneath
in the periodic table, which he named neptunium, after the Greek god of the oceans and seas. However this
was later recognized to be an
of the elements
and tantalum. The name "" was much later given to the synthetic element one step past
in the Periodic Table, which was discovered by
researchers in 1940.
Meija, J.; et al. (2016). . . 88 (3): 265–91. :.
, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
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