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Stainless steel cladding is used on the
In , stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French inoxydable (), is a
with a minimum of 10.5%
Stainless steels are notable for their , which increases with increasing chromium content. Molybdenum additions increase corrosion resistance in reducing acids and against pitting attack in chloride solutions. Thus, there are numerous grades of stainless steel with varying chromium and molybdenum contents to suit the environment the alloy must endure.
Stainless steel differs from
due to the presence of chromium. Unprotected carbon steel
readily when exposed to the combination of air and moisture. The resulting
surface layer (the rust) is porous and fragile. Since iron oxide occupies a larger volume than the original steel this layer expands and tends to flake and fall away exposing the underlying steel to further attack. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo , spontaneously forming a microscopically thin inert surface film of
by reaction with the oxygen in air and even the small amount of dissolved oxygen in water. This passive film prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and thus prevents corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal. This film is self-repairing if it is scratched or temporarily disturbed by an upset condition in the environment that exceeds the inherent corrosion resistance of that grade. Thus stainless steels are used where both the strength of steel and corrosion resistance are required.
Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and familiar lustre make it an ideal material for many applications. Stainless steels are rolled into , plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in , , ,
and as construction material in large buildings, such as the . As well as, industrial equipment (for example, in , , ), and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals and food products (for example,
and ). Stainless steel's corrosion resistance, the ease with which it can be steam cleaned and sterilized and no need for other surface coatings has also influenced its use in
and food processing plants.
Stainless steel (bottom row) resists
better than
(top row) or
alloys (middle row)
Stainless steels do not suffer uniform corrosion, like carbon steel, when exposed to wet environments. However, they may suffer uniform corrosion when exposed to acidic or basic solutions. Whether a stainless steel corrodes depends on the kind and concentration of
or , and the solution temperature. Uniform corrosion is typically easy to avoid because of extensive published corrosion data or easy to perform laboratory testing. Unfortunately, stainless steels are susceptible to localized corrosion under certain conditions, which need to be recognized and avoided. Such localized corrosion is problematic for stainless steels because it is unexpected and more difficult to predict.
Stainless steel is not completely immune to corrosion in this
Acidic solutions can be categorized into two general categories, reducing acids such as hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid, and
such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid. Increasing chromium and molybdenum contents provide increasing resistance to reducing acids, while increasing chromium and silicon contents provide increasing resistance to oxidizing acids.
is the largest tonnage industrial chemical manufactured. At room temperature Type 304 is only resistant up to 3% acid while Type 316 is resistant up to 50oC and up to 20% acid at room temperature. Thus Type 304 is rarely used in contact with sulfuric acid. Type 904 and Alloy 20 are resistant to sulfuric acid at even higher concentrations above room temperature.
will damage any kind of stainless steel, and should be avoided.
All types of stainless steel resist attack from
at room temperature. At high concentration and elevated temperature attack will occur and higher alloy stainless steels are required.
Concentrated sulfuric acid possesses oxidizing characteristics like nitric acid and thus silicon bearing stainless steels also find application.
In general,
are less corrosive than mineral acids such as hydrochloric and sulfuric acid. As the molecular weight of organic acids increase their corrosivity decreases.
has the lowest molecular weight and is a strong acid. Type 304 can be used with formic acid though it will tend to discolor the solution.
is probably the most commercially important of the organic acids and Type 316 is commonly used for storing and handling acetic acid.
Stainless steels Type 304 and 316 are unaffected by any of the weak bases such as , even in high concentrations and at high temperatures. The same grades of stainless exposed to stronger bases such as
at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience some etching and cracking.
Increasing chromium and nickel contents provide increasing resistance.
All grades resist damage from
and , though in the latter case grade 316 is preferable to 304;
will damage 304 unless the temperature is kept low. Fats and
only affect grade 304 at temperatures above 150 °C (302 °F), and grade 316 above 260 °C (500 °F), while 317 is unaffected at all temperatures. Type 316L is required for processing of .
Localized corrosion can occur in a number of ways, e.g. ,
and . Such localized attack is most common in the presence of . Increasing chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen contents provide increasing resistance to localized corrosion and thus increasing chloride levels require more highly alloyed stainless steels. In general, higher chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen contents provide greater resistance to localized corrosion. Design and good fabrication techniques combined with correct alloy selection can prevent such corrosion.
Localized corrosion can be difficult to predict because it is dependent on many factors including:
Chloride ion concentration (Unfortunately, even when the chloride solution concentration is known, it is still possible for chloride ions to concentrate, such as in crevices (e.g. under gaskets) or on surfaces in vapor spaces due to evaporation and condensation.)
Increasing temperature increases susceptibility
Increasing acidity increases susceptibility
Stagnant conditions increase susceptibility
The presence of oxidizing species, such as ferric and cupric ions
High oxidation resistance in
at ambient
is normally achieved with addition of a minimum of 13% (by weight) , and up to 26% is used for harsh environments. The chromium forms a
(Cr2O3) when exposed to . The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous and smooth. However, the layer does become visible when the temperatures are increased, first as colorful rainbow hues (depending on alloying elements, temperature, time, and atmosphere), later as a rough, dull, mostly brown surface due to the increased size of the metal oxide . The layer is impervious to
and air, protecting the metal beneath, and this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called
and is seen in other metals, such as
is not in inox and is
Like steel, stainless steel is a relatively poor conductor of electricity, with significantly lower
than copper. Other metals in contact with stainless steel, particularly in a damp or acidic environment, may suffer
even though the stainless metal may be unaffected.
stainless steels are . Annealed
stainless steels are .
can make austenitic stainless steels slightly magnetic.
When stainless steel parts such as
are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off, allowing the parts to
together. When forcibly disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, a destructive effect known as . Galling can be avoided by the use of dissimilar materials for the parts forced together, for example bronze and stainless steel, or even different types of stainless steels ( against ). However, two different alloys electrically connected in a humid, even mildly acidic environment may act as a
and corrode faster.
alloys, made by selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen, may have a reduced tendency to gall. Additionally, threaded joints may be
to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling. Low-temperature
is another option that virtually eliminates galling and allows the use of similar materials without the risk of corrosion and the need for lubrication.
An announcement, as it appeared in the 1915 New York Times, of the development of stainless steel in , England.
The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys was first recognized in 1821 by French metallurgist , who noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in . Metallurgists of the 19th century were unable to produce the combination of low carbon and high chromium found in most modern stainless steels, and the high-chromium alloys they could produce were too brittle to be practical.
In 1872, the Englishmen Clark and Woods patented an alloy that would today be considered a stainless steel.
In the late 1890s
of Germany developed an aluminothermic () process for producing carbon-free chromium. Between 1904 and 1911 several researchers, particularly
of France, prepared alloys that would today be considered stainless steel.
built the 366-ton sailing yacht
featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull in Germany in 1908. In 1911,
reported on the relationship between chromium content and corrosion resistance. On 17 October 1912,
engineers Benno Strauss and Eduard Maurer patented
stainless steel as .
Similar developments were taking place contemporaneously in the United States, where Christian Dantsizen and Frederick Becket were industrializing
stainless steel. In 1912,
applied for a US patent on a
stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until 1919.
Monument to
at the former
in , England
research laboratory in , England, while seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels, discovered and subsequently industrialized a martensitic stainless steel alloy. The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915 newspaper article in . The metal was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by
in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the
in 1929. Brearley applied for a US patent during 1915 only to find that Haynes had already registered a patent. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and with a group of investors formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation, with headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
In the beginning stainless steel was sold in the US under different brand names like "" and "Nirosta steel". Even within the metallurgy industry the eventual nam in 1921 one trade journal was calling it "unstainable steel". In 1929, before the Great Depression hit, over 25,000 tons of stainless steel were manufactured and sold in the US.
Within stainless steels, there are four families
(include the so-called super-austenitics)
is added, the
structure of iron is stabilized. This crystal structure makes such steels virtually non- and less
at low temperatures.
Significant quantities of
have been used in many stainless steel compositions. Manganese preserves an austenitic structure in the steel, similar to nickel, but at a lower .
For greater
and strength, more
is added. With proper , these steels are used for such products as , cutlery, and tools.
(also called austenitic- ferritic stainless steels)
made of stainless steel
Stainless steels are also classified by their :
Also called 200 and 300 series, stainless steels have an austenitic crystalline structure, which is a
crystal structure. Austenite steels make up over 70% of total stainless steel production. They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium, and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all temperatures from the
region to the melting point of the alloy.
200 Series—austenitic chromium-nickel-manganese alloys. Type 201 is hardenable
Type 202 is a general purpose stainless steel. Decreasing nickel content and increasing manganese results in weak corrosion resistance.
300 Series. The most widely used austenite steel is the , also known as 18/8 for its composition of 18% chromium and 8% nickel. 304 may be referred to as A2 stainless (not to be confused with
grade A2 air hardening alloy
containing about 5% chromium). The second most common austenite steel is the
grade, also referred to as A4 stainless and called marine grade stainless, used primarily for its increased resistance to corrosion. A typical composition of 18% chromium and 10% nickel, commonly known as 18/10 stainless, is often used in
and high-quality . 18/0 is also available.
Superaustenitic stainless steels, such as
and 254SMO, exhibit great resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion because of high
content (&6%) and nitrogen additions, and the higher nickel content ensures better resistance to stress-corrosion cracking versus the 300 series. The higher alloy content of superaustenitic steels makes them more expensive. Other steels can offer similar performance at lower cost and are preferred in certain applications. For example ASTM A387 is used in pressure vessels but is a low-alloy carbon steel with a chromium content of 0.5% to 9%. Low-carbon versions, for example
or 304L, are used to avoid corrosion problems caused by welding. Grade 316LVM is preferred where
is required (such as body implants and piercings). The "L" means that the carbon content of the alloy is below 0.03%, which reduces the
(precipitation of
at grain boundaries) caused by the high temperatures involved in welding.
stainless steels generally have better engineering properties than austenitic grades, but have reduced corrosion resistance, because of the lower chromium and nickel content. They are also usually less expensive. Ferritic stainless steels have a
crystal system and contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium with very little nickel, if any, but some types can contain lead. Most composition some, aluminium or titanium. Common ferritic grades include 18Cr-2Mo, 26Cr-1Mo, 29Cr-4Mo, and 29Cr-4Mo-2Ni. These alloys can be degraded by the presence of sigma chromium, an intermetallic phase which can precipitate upon welding.
are made of .
are usually not as corrosion-resistant as the other two classes but are extremely strong and tough, as well as highly , and can be hardened by heat treatment. Martensitic stainless steel contains chromium (12–14%), molybdenum (0.2–1%), nickel (less than 2%), and carbon (about 0.1–1%) (giving it more hardness but making the material a bit more brittle). It is quenched and magnetic.
have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim usually being to produce a 50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys the ratio may be 40/60. Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the strength compared to austenitic stainless steels and also improved resistance to localized corrosion, particularly , crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. They are characterized by high chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels.
The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content than similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many applications. Duplex grades are characterized into groups based on their alloy content and corrosion resistance.
Lean duplex refers to grades such as
S32101 (LDX 2101), S32202 (UR2202), S32304, and S32003.
Standard duplex refers to grades with 22% chromium, such as UNS S3, with 2205 being the most widely used.
Super duplex is by definition a duplex stainless steel with a
(PREN) & 40, where PREN = %Cr + 3.3x(%Mo + 0.5x%W) + 16x%N. Usually super duplex grades have 25% or more chromium. Some common examples are S32760 ( via ), S3), and S32550 (Ferralium 255 via Langley Alloys).
Hyper duplex refers to duplex grades with a PRE & 48. UNS S32707 and S33207 are the only grades currently available on the market.
Precipitation-hardening martensitic stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but can be
to even higher strengths than the other martensitic grades. The most common, , uses about 17% chromium and 4% nickel.
The designation "CRES" is used in various industries to refer to corrosion-resistant steel. Most mentions of CRES refer to stainless steel, although the correspondence is not absolute, because there are other materials that are corrosion-resistant but not stainless steel.
There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which 15 are most commonly used. There are a number of systems for , including US .
EN-standard
Steel no. k.h.s DIN
EN-standard
Steel name
X105CrMo17
X10CrNi18-8
X2CrNiN18-7
X5CrNi18-10
X2CrNi18-9
X2CrNi19-11
X2CrNiN18-10
X6CrNi18-11
X5CrNi18-12
X5CrNi30-9
X22CrNi2520
X 5 CrNi 2520
X5CrNiMo17-12-2
G-X 6 CrNiMo 18-10
X3CrNiMo17-13-3
X2CrNiMoN17-12-2
X2CrNiMo17-12-2
X2CrNiMo17-12-3
X2CrNiMo18-14-3
X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2
X2CrNiMoN17-13-3
X2CrNiMo18-15-4
X6CrNiTi18-10
X12CrNiTi18-9
X2CrNi23-4
X2CrNiMoN22-5-3
X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4
X1NiCrMoCu25-20-5
X1NiCrMoCuN25-20-7
X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7
316L stainless steel, with an unpolished, mill finish
can be applied to flat rolled stainless steel directly by the rollers and by mechanical abrasives. Steel is first rolled to size and thickness and then
to change the properties of the final material. Any
that forms on the surface () is removed by , and a passivation layer is created on the surface. A final finish can then be applied to achieve the desired aesthetic appearance.
No. 0: Hot rolled, annealed, thicker plates
No. 1: Hot rolled, annealed and passivated
No. 2D: Cold rolled, annealed, pickled and passivated
No. 2B: Same as above with additional pass through highly polished rollers
No. 2BA: Bright annealed (BA or 2R) same as above then bright annealed under oxygen-free atmospheric condition
No. 3: Coarse abrasive finish applied mechanically
No. 4: Brushed finish
No. 5: Satin finish
No. 6: Matte finish (brushed but smoother than #4)
No. 7: Reflective finish
No. 8: Mirror finish
No. 9: Bead blast finish
No. 10: Heat colored finish—offering a wide range of
and heat colored surfaces
The 630-foot-high (190 m), stainless-clad (type 304)
The pinnacle of New York's
is clad with Nirosta stainless steel, a form of Type 302
An art deco sculpture on the
Stainless steel is used for industrial equipment when durability and cleanability are important
Stainless steel is used for buildings for both practical and aesthetic reasons. Stainless steel was in vogue during the
period. The most famous example of this is the upper portion of the
(pictured). Some diners and fast-food restaurants use large ornamental panels and stainless fixtures and furniture. Because of the durability of the material, many of these buildings still retain their original appearance. Stainless steel is used today in building construction because of its durability and because it is a weldable building metal that can be made into aesthetically pleasing shapes. An example of a building in which these properties are exploited is the
in , which is wrapped in stainless steel.
Type 316 stainless is used on the exterior of both the
and the , two of the world's tallest .
has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 metric tons (240 short tons).
The aeration building in the , the size of 14 hockey rinks, is the largest stainless steel building in North America.
is a pedestrian bridge linking Marina Centre with Marina South in the Marina Bay area in Singapore.
(Spain) was the first stainless steel road bridge.
Sant Fruitos Pedestrian Bridge (Catalonia, Spain), arch pedestrian bridge.
Padre Arrupe Bridge (Bilbao, Spain) links the Guggenheim museum to the University of Deusto.
Monuments and sculptures
, constructed as the theme symbol of the , is constructed of Type 304L stainless steel as a spherical framework with a diameter of 120 feet (37 m) (New York City)
(pictured) is clad entirely in stainless steel: 886 tons (804 metric tons) of 0.25 in (6.4 mm) plate, #3 finish, type 304 stainless steel. (St. Louis, Missouri)
has an austenitic stainless steel structural skin (Arlington, Virginia)
was renovated with stainless-steel cladding in a renovation completed in 2006; previously the spheres and tubes of the structure were clad in aluminium (Brussels, Belgium)
sculpture by
(Chicago, Illinois)
is made entirely of stainless steel tubes (Helsinki, Finland)
(Falkirk, Scotland)
under construction (Rotherham, England)
monument (Terchova, Slovakia)
Stainless steel is a modern trend for roofing material for airports due to its low glare reflectance to keep pilots from being blinded, also for its properties that allow thermal reflectance in order to keep the surface of the roof close to ambient temperature. The
was built with all stainless steel roofing for these reasons, as well as the
Stainless steels have a long history of application in contact with water due to their excellent corrosion resistance. Applications include a range of conditions from plumbing, potable and waste water treatment to desalination. Types 304 and 316 stainless steels are standard materials of construction in contact with water. However, with increasing chloride contents higher alloyed stainless steels such as Type 2205 and super austenitic and super duplex stainless steels are utilized.
Important considerations to achieve optimum corrosion performance are:
choose the correct grade for the chloride
avoid crevices when pos
follow good fabrication practices, particularly rem
drain promptly after hydrotesting.
Stainless steels are used extensively in the
industry for two primary reasons, to avoid iron contamination of the product and their corrosion resistance to the various chemicals used in the paper making process.
A wide range stainless steels are used throughout the paper making process. For example, duplex stainless steels are being used in
to convert wood chips into wood pulp. 6% Mo superaustenitics are used in the
and Type 316 is used extensively in the .
Automotive bodies
worked with
on various
with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958
Eldorado Brougham had a stainless steel roof. In 1981 and 1982, the
production automobile used Type-304 stainless steel body panels over a
. Intercity buses made by
are partially made of stainless steel. The aft body panel of the
model (2-door coupe hatchback) is made of stainless steel. It was discovered during early body prototyping that conventional steel could not be formed without cracking (due to the many curves and angles in that automobile). Thus,
was forced to use stainless steel on the Cayman.
use stainless steel as decorative highlights in their vehicles.
Passenger rail cars
Rail cars have commonly been manufactured using corrugated stainless steel panels (for additional structural strength). This was particularly popular during the 1960s and 1970s, but has since declined. One notable example was the early . Notable former manufacturers of stainless steel rolling stock included the
(USA), which has been licensed to Japan's , and the Portuguese company . Many railcars in the United States are still manufactured with stainless steel, unlike other countries who have shifted away.
Budd also built two airplanes, the
and the , of stainless steel tube and sheet. The first, which had fabric wing coverings, is on display at the , being the longest continuous display of an aircraft ever, since 1934. The
Was almost all stainless steel, save for the control surfaces. One survives at the , adjacent to .
The American
of 1936 was also built using a spot-welded stainless steel hull.
Due to its thermal stability, the Bristol Aeroplane Company built the all-stainless steel
high-speed research aircraft, which first flew in 1963. However, the practical problems encountered meant that
employed aluminium alloys.
The use of stainless steel in mainstream aircraft is hindered by its excessive weight compared to other materials, such as .
Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be sterilized in an . In addition,
such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions .[]
Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles, endodontic files in , metal posts in root canal–treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for , and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics. The surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) have also been used in some of the early dental implants.
Stainless steel is often preferred for
because of its ruggedness, durability, heat resistance, and ease of cleaning. In better models,
is controlled by applying
to dampen vibrations. The material is also used for cladding of surfaces such as
may be clad in stainless steels, to enhance their cleanability and durability, and to permit their use in
(this requires a
grade of stainless steel, such as 432). Because stainless steel is a poor conductor of heat, it is often used as a thin surface cladding over a core of copper or aluminium, which conduct heat more readily.
Cutlery is normally stainless steel, for low corrosion, ease of cleaning, negligible toxicity, as well as not flavoring the food by .[]
Stainless steel is used for jewelry and watches, with 316L being the type commonly used for such applications. It can be re-finished by any jeweler and will not oxidize or turn black.[]
Valadium, a stainless steel and 12% nickel alloy is used to make class and military rings. Valadium is usually silver-toned, but can be electro-plated to give it a gold tone. The gold tone variety is known as Sun-lite Valadium. Other "Valadium" types of alloy are trade-named differently, with such names as "Siladium" and "White Lazon".
Some firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative to
steel. Some
models, such as the
and the Colt , can be made entirely from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster finish similar in appearance to nickel plating. Unlike plating, the finish is not subject to flaking, peeling, wear-off from rubbing (as when repeatedly removed from a holster), or rust when scratched.
providers have developed proprietary stainless steel
blends for use in rapid prototyping. One of the more popular stainless steel grades used in
is 316L stainless steel. Due to the high temperature gradient and fast rate of solidification, stainless steel products manufactured via 3D printing tend to have a more re this in turn results in better mechanical properties. However, stainless steel is not used as much as materials like Ti6Al4V in the 3D this is because manufacturing stainless steel products via traditional methods is currently much more economically competitive.
Stainless steel is 100% . An average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material of which approximately 40% originates from end-of-life products and about 60% comes from manufacturing processes. According to the 's , the per capita stock of stainless steel in use in society is 80–180 kg in more developed countries and 15 kg in less-developed countries.
There is a secondary market that recycles usable scrap for many stainless steel markets. The product is mostly coil, sheet, and blanks. This material is purchased at a less-than-prime price and sold to commercial quality stampers and sheet metal houses. The material may have scratches, pits, and dents but is made to the current specifications.
Stainless steel nanoparticles have been produced in the laboratory. This synthesis uses oxidative
to build a thin protective barrier which prevent further oxidation. These may have applications as additives for high performance applications. For examples, sulfurization, phosphorization and nitridation treatments to produce nanoscale stainless steel based catalysts could enhance the electrocatalytic performance of stainless steel for water splitting.
Stainless steel is generally considered to be biologically inert, but some sensitive individuals develop a skin irritation due to a
caused by certain alloys.
Stainless steel leaches small amounts of nickel and chromium during cooking. and
is an essential mineral.
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